Identifyingthe Target Audience

A marketing communicator starts with a clear target audience in mind. The audience may be potential buyers or cxirrent users, those who make the buying decision or those who influence it. The audience may be individuals, groups, special publics or die general public. The target audience will heavily affect the communicator's decisions on 'what will be said, how it will be said, when it will he said, where it will be said and who will say it.

buyer-readiness stages The stages that consumers normally pass through on their •way to purchase, including awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, conviction and purchase.

Determining the Communication Objectives

Once the target audience has been defined, the marketing communicator must decide what response is sought. Of course, in many cases, the final response is purchase. But purchase is the result of a long process of consumer decision making. The marketing communicator needs to know where the target audience now stands and to what state it needs to be moved. To do this he or she must determine whether or not the customer is ready to buy.

The target audience may be in any of six buyer-readiness stages - the stages that consumers normally pass through on their way to making a purchase. These stages are awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, conviction and purchase (see Figure 18,3). They can be described as a hierarchy of consumer response stages. The purpose of marketing communication is to move the customer along these stages and ultimately to achieve final purchase.

The communicator must first know how aware the target audience is of the product or organization. The audience maybe totally unaware of it, know only its name or know one or a few things about it. If most of the target audience is unaware, the communicator tries to build awareness, perhaps starting with just name recognition. This process can begin with simple messages that repeat the company or product name. For example, when Nissan introduced its Infiniti automobile line, it began with an extensive 'teaser' advertising campaign to create name familiarity. Initial ads for the Infiniti created curiosity and awareness by showing the ear's name, but not the car.

The target audience might be aware of the existence of the company or of the product, but not know much more. Nissan may want its target audience to know more about the Infiniti. The company needs to learn how many people in its target audience have little, some or much knowledge about the Infiniti. To create product knowledge Infiniti ads must inform potential buyers of die car's high quality and other innovative features.

Assuming target audience members know the product, how do theyfeel about it? Once potential btiyers knew about the Infiniti, Nissan's marketers would want to move them along to the next stage - to develop favourable feelings about the Int'initi. If the audience looks unfavourably on the Infiniti, the communicator lias to find out why. and then resolve the problems identified before developing a communications campaign to generate favourable feelings.

• Preference

The target audience might like the product, but not prefer it to others. In this case, the communicator must try to build consumer preference by promoting the

Figure 18.3

Buyer readiness stages product's quality, value and other beneficial features. The communicator can check on the campaign's success by measuring the audience's preferences again after the campaign. If Nissan finds that many potential customers like the Int'initi, but prefer other car brands, it will have to identify those areas where its offerings are not as good as competing deals and where they are better. It must then promote its advantages to build preference among prospective clients, while redressing its weaknesses.

• Conviction

A target audience might prefer the product, but not develop a conviction about buying it. Thus some customers may prefer the Infiniti to other car brands, but may not be absolutely sure that it is what they should buy. The communicator's job is to build conviction that the product is the best one for the potential buyer. Infiniti used a combination of the promotion-mix tools to create preference and conviction. Advertising extolled the Infinity's advantages over rival brands. Press releases and public relations activities stressed the car's innovative features and performance. Dealer salespeople told buyers about options, value for the price and after-sales service.

Finally, some members of the target audience might have con-uictkm, but not quite get around to making the purchase. Potential Infiniti buyers might have decided to wait for more information or for the economy to improve. The communicator must lead these consumers to take the final step. Actions might include offering speeial promotional prices, rebates or premiums. Salespeople might call or write to selected customers, inviting them to visit the dealership for a special showing or test drive.

In discussing huyer readiness stages, we have assumed that buyers pass through cognitive (awareness, knowledge); affective (liking, preference, conviction); and behavioural (purchase) stages, in that order. This 'leain-/eel-do' sequence is appropriate when buyers have high involvement with a product category and perceive brands in the category to be highly differentiated, as is the case when they purchase a product such as a car. But consumers often follow other sequences. For example, they might follow a 'do-feel-learn' sequence for high-involvement products with little perceived differentiation, such as a central heating system. Still a third sequence is the 'learn-do-jeel' sequence, where consumers have low involvement and perceive little differentiation, as is the case when they buy a product such as salt.

Furthermore, marketing communications alone cannot create positive feelings and purchases for the product. So, for example, the Infiniti must provide superior value to potential buyers. In fact, outstanding marketing communications can actually speed the demise of a poor product. The more quickly potential buyers learn about the poor product, the faster they become aware of its faults. Thus, good marketing communications calls for 'good deeds followed by good words'. Nonetheless, by understanding consumers' buying stages and their appropriate sequence, the marketer can do a better job of planning communications.

Designing a Message

Having defined the desired audience response, the communicator turns to developing an effective message. Ideally, the message should get Attention, hold interest, arouse Desire and obtain Action (a framework known as the AID A model). In practice, few messages take the consumer all die way from awareness to purchase, but the A1UA framework suggests the desirable qualities of a good message.

In putting the message together, the marketing communicator must decide what to say (message content) and how to say it (message structure andformat).

rational appeals Message appeals that relate to the audience's self-interest and show that the product will prodiice the claimed benefits; examples are appeals of product quality, economy, value or performance.

emotional appeals

Message appeals that attempt to stir up negative or positive emotions that isill motivate purchase; examples are fear, guilt, shame, love, humour, pride and joy appeals.

• Message Content

The communicator has to figure out an appeal or theme that will produce the desired response. There are three types of appeal: rational, emotional and moral Rational appeals relate to the audience's self-interest. They emphasize the functional benefits — better performance, higher quality, outstanding economy or value - of the product. Thus, in its ads, Mercedes offers automobiles that are 'engineered like no other car in the world', stressing engineering design, performance and safety. One Volvo ad gives 'a whole stack of reasons' for buying the car - it has a rigid passenger safety cage, front and rear absorbing crumple zones, a catalytic converter that always works at peak efficiency, and many more reasons stressing design, safety and economy. When pitching computer systems to business users, IBM salespeople talk about quality, performance, reliability and improved productivity. Rational appeals are particularly appropriate in industrial buying situations and for the purchase of expensive consumer durable products.

Emotional appeals attempt to stir up either negative or positive emotions that can motivate purchase. These include fear, guilt and shame appeals that get people to do things they should (brush their teeth, buy new tyres) or to stop doing things they shouldn't (smoke, drink too much, eat fatty foods). For example, a recent Crest ad invoked mild fear when it claimed, 'There are some things you just can't afford to gamble with* (cavities). So did Michelin tyre ads that featured cute babies and suggested 'Because so much is riding on your tyres'.3 Communicators of industrial goods can also use emotional appeals, as in the case of Alcatel, which played on managers' fear of investing in technology that could become obsolete rapidly. Its ad says: 'Before you invest in the latest technology make sure it has a future.'

Advertisers also use positive emotional appeals such as love, humour, pride, promise of success and joy. Thus some ad themes, such as British Telecom's'Make someone happy with a phone call', stir a bundle of strong emotions. Ad campaigns for Haagen-Dazs in the United Kingdom equated iee cream with pleasure (fore-play, to be more precise). 'It is the intense flavour of the finest ingredients combined with fresh cream that is essentially Ilaagen-Dazs', followed by the strapline: 'Now it's on everybody's lips'. The firm claimed that the ad was a success. During the three months it advertised in newspapers and their supplements, brand awareness doubled while sales in big outlets rose by a third. Over the year, the campaign had boosted sales by 59 per cent.'

This Alcatel atl is a good example o f the use of fear appeal'. It Stresses the upgradability of its innovations, arresting potential buyers'fear of technological obsolescence..

Moral appeals are directed to the audience's sense of what is 'right' and 'proper'. They are often used to urge people to support social causes such as a cleaner environment, butter race relations, equal rights for women and aid to the pisadvantaged. An example of a moral appeal is a Financial Times and Salomon Brothers ad drawing attention to a family festival and fun run in aid of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund and the Queen Elizabeth's Foundation for Disabled People. The ad informs viewers of the date and time of a fun/entertainment event. Runners taking part in a three-mile competitive run and a one-mile fun run eaeh donate a sum of money to the charities. The ad stresses that the two charities count on the generosity of sponsors to continue their vital work - in the United Kingdom alone, about 2.6 million people are severely disabled; cancer is a disease which affects one in three people and kills one in four. If readers want more information and an entry form, they are invited to complete the reply coupon at the end of the ad or to telephone the event hot line. The advertisement also uses an emotional appeal - concern and sympathy for sufferers - to convey its cause to the target audience.

moral appeals Message appeals that are directed to the audience's sense of what is right and proper.

• Message Structure

The communicator must decide /IOTO to say it. This requires the communicator to handle three message-struct lire issues. The first is whether to draw a conclusion or to leave it to the audience. Early research showed that drawing a conclusion was usually more effective where the target audience is less likely to be motivated or may be incapable of arriving at the appropriate conclusion. Mori,' recent research, however, suggests that in many cases where the targets are likely to be interested in the product, the advertiser is better off asking questions to stimulate involvement and motivate customers to think about the brand, and then letting them come to their own conclusions.

The second message structure issue is whether to present a one-sided argument (mentioning only the product's strengths), or a two-sided argument (touting the product's strengths while also admitting its shortcomings). Usually, a onesided argument is more effective in sales presentations - except when audiences are highly educated or likely to hear opposing claims or are negatively disposed.

Here, not-for-profit organisations, such as the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UN!ICR) and companies like The Body Shop use moral and emotional appeals to reach their target audience.

The third mess age-structure issue is whether to present the strongest arguments first or last. Presenting them first gets strong attention, but may lead to an anti-climnctic ending."

• Message Format

The communicator also needs a strong./bmmt for the message. In a print ad, the communicator has to decide on the headline, copy, illustration and colour. To attract attention, advertisers can use: novelty and contrast; eye-catching pictures and headlines; distinctive formats; message size and position; and eolour. shape and movement. If the message is to be carried over the radio, the communicator has to choose words, sounds and voices. The 'sound' of an announcer promoting a used car should be different from one promoting quality furniture.

If the message is to he transmitted on television or conveyed in person, then all these elements plus body language have to he planned. Presenters plan their facial expressions, gestures, dress, posture and even hairstyle. If the message is carried on the product or its package, the communicator has to watch texture, scent, colour, size and shape. For example, colour plays an important communication role in food preferences.

When consumers sampled four cups of coffee that had been placed next to brown, blue, red and yellow containers (all the coffee was identical, but the consumers did not know this), 75 per cent felt that the coffee next to the brown container tasted too strong; nearly 85 per cent judged the coffee next to the red container to be the richest; nearly everyone felt that the coffee next to the blue container was mild; and the coffee next to the yellow container was seen as weak.

Thus, if a coffee company wants to communicate that its coffee is rich, it should probably use a red container along with label copy boasting the coffee's rich taste.

Even when an individual is exposed to a message, he or she may pay no attention to the message because it is either boring or irrelevant. The communicator increases the chances of the message attracting the attention of the target audience by taking into consideration the following factors:

• The message must have a practical value to the target audience because individuals are in the market for the product (for example, advertising pension schemes to undergraduates is a waste of time as they are likely to find such policies irrelevant to them for the time being).

• The message must interest the target group.

• The message must communicate new information about the product or brand. Consumers pay more attention to new messages.

• The message must reinforce or help to justify the buyer's recent purchase decisions - if you have recently bought a personal computer, it is likely that you will notice or your attention will be quickly drawn to ads for the PC (the phenomenon is called cognitive dissonance reduction).

t The presentation of the message must be-; impactful. As explained above, this objective can be achieved by paying attention to message formats and stressing creativity in the way the copy, art work/il lust rations and physical layout or presentation are delivered.

While advertisers' basic aim is to get their ads noticed, they must be sensitive to, and comply with, codes of practice operated by the industry watchdogs or country regulators. Messages should be designed to create maximum impact but, at the same time, not cause public offence and irritation (see Marketing Highlight 18.1).

• Selecting the Message Source

Studies show that the message's impact on the target audience is also affected by how the audience views the communicator. The credibility and attractiveness of the message source - the company, the brand name, the spokesperson for the brand or the actor in the ad who endorses the product - must therefore be considered.

Messages delivered by highly credible sources are more persuasive. Pharmaceutical firms want doctors to tell about their products' benefits because doctors rank high on expertise in their field, so they have high credibility. Many food companies promote to doctors, dentists and other healthcare experts to motivate these professionals to recommend their products to patients. For example, Sensodyne Toothpaste has, for years, promoted the product in dental surgeries, and ads use endorsements by dental practitioners to persuade target users to adopt the brand. However, the expert loses credibility if the audience believes the person is being paid to make product claims. To remain credible, the message source The company, [he brand name, the salesperson of the brand, or the actor in the ad who entlorses the product.

Communications: The Kine Line Between Attraction and Irritation

Very few advertisers set out deliberately to trick, mislead, insult or offend the public. Those that do, face a backlash from consumers and other parties, or find themselves debarred at source from the means to publicize their messages further because the media reject the ads that conflict with a country's codes of advertising practices.

Teasers: Good Campaigns (ret the Punters Talking, a Bud One Attracts Complaints Advertisers acknowledge that getting viewers to solve a puzzle in an advertisement is fair game in advertising. However, campaigns can backfire. Britvic Soft Drinks aired a 'Still Tango' ad which appealed to consumers to report any sightings oi an apparently unlicensed product in the ad. Almost 30,000 consumers responded, only to be told that it was all a joke - they'd been 'Tango'd'! Sixty-three oi" those 'Tango'd' were so annoyed that they complained to the Independent Television Commission (ITC), which accused Britvic and its agency of undermining the credibility and authority of the medium - TV - and misleading consumers. People felt used, expressing irritation with the company for playing a prank on them. Britvic's teaser grabbed the audience's attention, but it ended up getting the wrong kind of publicity!

A campaign of a different kind caused uproar in .Spain. An agency in Madrid sent out love letters to 50,000 young mothers in a direct-marketing campaign for Fiat's Cinquento car. A second hatch of letters was then sent revealing the Cinquento as the secret admirer. Rather than this being seen as an amusing piece of junk mail, it caused a storm of protest. The agency claimed the reaction was mainly positive. The Spanish Women's Institute denounced the campaign. Some women were so troubled they were seared to leave the house.

There is a fine dividing line between attracting and irritating consumers. For most of the time, people are prepared to enjoy a light-hearted

Marketing Highlight

18.1

puzzle. A little intrigue adds interest. But the intrigue can only be stretched so far.

18.1

tion was 'Inter-Rail. You've got the rest of your life to he good' and supported the European Commission's 'Europe Against AIDS' initiative. BR denied that the ad encouraged promiscuity. Rather it was consistent with research evidence — that a significant proportion of 18-25-year-olds had sexual encounters without a condom while on holiday, BR was urged to avoid further advertisements in that style l

More noteworthy is the controversy that has dogged Italian clothing designer and manufacturer Benetton's 'United Colors' ads throughout the late 1980s and mid-1990s. In 1989 public opinion in the United States forced it to withdraw those showing a black woman breastfeeding a white child. In 1991 a blood-smeared newborn baby ad received more than 800 complaints to the UK's ASA, criticizing Benetton for provoking public distress and outrage, and displaying a conspicuous disregard for the sensitivities of the public. Benetton agreed to withdraw the advertisement. Magazine publishers and poster contractors supported the ASA in its ruling against Benetton by refusing space to the advertiser. Other Benetton ads - a black child depicting a devil contrasting with a white cherub, an AIDS victim, a baby's bottom stamped 'HIV positive', the Queen of England as a black woman, the bloodied uniform of a dead Bosnian soldier, a nun kissing a priest, a black stallion mounting a white mare -consistently created furore. Benetton argues that the campaigns were not about pushing sales. Nor were they intended to insult or hurt. Rather they were designed to capture people's interest, promote tolerance and provoke reflection.

There is little doubt that Benetton's shocking ads succeeded in creating worldwide publicity and kept its name on everybody's lips. But was it good or bad publicity? Over the years, its campaigns have been rejected in a number of coun tries. For example, in 1995 some ads were banned in Germany following protests from the firm's retailers, and three of Belgium's largest billboard operators refused to carry the 'black horse on white horse' poster in August 1996.

More recently, Benetton has been changing its style, dropping its 'shock' posters in favour of more subtle ways of communicating its business philosophy to target audiences. The company is opening up shops all over the world. But its new shops are no ordinary outlets. One in Milan, for example, is staffed by penniless north African immigrants. And there is a common thread — shops in the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo, in Siberia, Albania, Estonia, Ukraine, Libya, Cameroon and Croatia, Benetton's publicity strategy is 'to make consumers think', says the controversial Oliviero Toscani, Benetton's freelance photographer and advertising guru. Benetton's new-image shops do just that. The one in Milan was a response to European Union moves to restrict immigration to Europe. Benetton's message remains the same as in its 'shock' ads. But now, these shops give Benetton another channel to make challenging gestures. The big question is: Will this help to sell lots and lots of clothes?

Sources: 'Brands that backfired badly'. The European (25-3Í March, 1994), p. 22; Claire Murphy, "When the teasers become unbearable', Marketing Week (15 July, 1994), p. 21; Diane Summers, 'BR's condom-flag advert is labelled "irresponsible-", Financial Times (5 October 1994), p. 9; Sarah Cunningham, :15enetton to drop its shock tactics', The European (8-14 July 1994), p. 23; 'As you sow, so shall you reap' and 'Benetton cover story', Marketing Week (3 February 1995), pp. 5 and 21 respectively; Francine Cunningham, 'Mount i rift pressure', The European (15-21 August 1996), p. 15; Stephanie lientley, 'Benetton risks fresh outrage', Marketing Week (13 September 1996), p. 9.

source must be perceived by the target audience as being an expert where the product is concerned and trustworthy: that is, objective and honest in his or her opinion of the benefits claimed for the product.

Marketers also use celebrities to speak for their products. For example, when the pan-European television station MTV launched its UK-only music channel VH-1 in September 1994, it chose a cast of UK celebrities who would appeal to its target audience of 'older' viewers. Ads featured, among others, fashion designer Bruce Oldfield, England rugby captain Will Car ling and Anglo-Norwegian television presenter Mariella Frostrup.6 ■

Other notable examples are Michael Jackson, who was the star in Pepsi-Cola's ad, and O.J. Simpson for the car rental firm Hertz, Celebrities arc effective when they personify a key product attribute, but there can be a backlash, as in the case of both Jackson and .Simpson, when they are caught up in unsavoury publicity, which tarnishes their credibility and esteem with the audience.

Attractiveness is associated with the prestige of the source, his or her similarity with the receiver, or the physical or personal attractiveness of the source. It is also likely that the more attractive the source, the more he or she will be liked by the audience. It is therefore not surprising that many advertisers use well-known film stars, fashion models and top sports people to endorse their products.

personal communication channels

Channels through tehich Wo or more people communicate directly •upith each other, including fact; to face, person to audience, over the telephone, or through the: mail.

word-of-mouth influence Personal communication about a product between target buyers and neighbours, friends, family members and associates.

Choosing Media

The communicator must now select channels of communication. There are two broad types of communication channel: personal and non-personal.

• Personal Communication Channels

In personal communication channels, two or more people communicate directly with each other. They might communicate face to face, over the telephone, through the mail or even through an internet 'chat'. Personal communication channels are effective because they allow for personal addressing and feedback.

Some personal communication channels are controlled directly by the communicator, as in the case of company salespeople who contact buyers in the target market. Other personal communications about the product may reacli buyers through channels not directly controlled by the company. These might include independent experts - consumer advocates, consumer buying guides and others - making statements to target buyers. Or, they might be neighbours, friends, family members and associates talking to target buyers. This last channel, known as word-of-mouth influence, has considerable effect in many product areas.

Here, Anglo-Norwegian televisionpresenter, Marietta Frostrup, taken part in VH-1 'slaunch campaign to promote the nets music channel in Britain.

VH-1

MUltC THAT MIAN» fOMtTHINO

Personal influence carries great weight for products that are expensive, risky or highly visible. For example, buyers of cars and major appliances often go beyond mass-media sources to seek the opinions of knowledgeable people.

Companies can take several steps to put personal communication channels to work for them:

• They can devote extra effort to selling their products to well-known people or companies, which may, in turn, influence others to buy.

• They can create opinion leaders - people whose opinions are sought by others - by supplying certain people with the product on attractive terms. For example, companies can work through community members, such as local radio personalities and leaders of local organizations.

• They can use influential people in their advertisements or develop advertising that has high "conversation value'.

• Finally, the firm can work to manage word-of-mouth communications by finding out what consumers arc saying to others, by taking appropriate actions to satisfy consumers and correct problems, and by helping consumers seek information about the firm and its products.7

• Non-Personal Communication Channels

Non-personal communication channels are media that carry messages without personal contact or feedback. They include major media, atmospheres and events. Important media consist of print media (newspapers, magazines, direct mail); broadcast media (radio, television); and display media (billboards, signs, posters). Atmospheres are designed environments that create or reinforce the buyer's leanings towards buying a product. Thus lawyers' offices and banks are designed to communicate confidence and other factors that might be valued by their clients. Events are occurrences staged to communicate messages to target audiences. For example, public relations departments arrange press conferences, grand openings, shows and exhibits, public tours and other events to communicate with specific audiences.

Non-personal communication affects buyers directly. In addition, using mass media often affects buyers indirectly by causing more personal communication. Communications first flow from television, magazines and other mass media to opinion leaders and then from these opinion leaders to others. Thus opinion leaders step between the mass media and their audiences and carry messages to people who are less exposed to media. This suggests that mass communicators affect attitudes and behaviour through a fico-step flow-of-communication process.8

The two-step flow concept challenges the notion that people's buying is affected by a 'trickle-down' of opinions and information from higher social classes. Because people mostly interact with others in their own social class, they pick up their fashion and other ideas from people like themselves, who are opinion leaders. The two-step flow concept also suggests that mass communicators should aim their messages directly at opinion leaders, letting them carry the message to others. Pharmaceutical firms direct their new drugs promotions at the most influential doctors and medical experts first - the 'thought leaders' in the profession; if they are persuaded, their opinions have an impact upon the new product's acceptance by others in the field. Thus opinion leaders extend the influence of the mass media. Or, they may alter the message or not carry the message, thus acting as gatekeepers.

no a-personal communication channels Media dial carry messages without personal contact or feedback, including media, atmospheres and events.

media

Non-personal communica tions channels including print media (newspapers, magazines, direct mail); broadcast media (rarliit, television): and display media (billboards, signs, posters).

atmospheres Designed environments tl'iat create or reinforce tlie buyer's leanings towards consumption of a product.

events

Occurrences staged to communicate messages to target audiences; examples are news conferences and grand openings.

Collecting Feedback

After sending the message, the communicator must research its effect on the target audience. This involves asking the target audience members whether they remember the message, how many times they saw it, what points they recall, how they felt about the message, and their past and present attitudes towards the product and company. The communicator would also like to measure behaviour resulting in the message - how many people bought a product, talked to others about it or visited the store.

Figure 18.4 shows an example of feedback measurement for two hypothetical brands. Looking ;it Brand A, we find that 80 per cent of the total market is aware of it, that 60 per cent of those aware of it have tried it, but that only 20 per cent of tho.se who tried it were satisfied. These results suggest that although the communication programme is creating awareness, the product fails to give consumers the satisfaction they expect. Therefore, the company should try to improve the product while staying with the successful communication programme. In contrast, only 40 per cent of die total market is aware of Brand B, only 30 per cent of those aware of Brand B have tried it, but 80 per cent of chose who have tried it are satisfied. In this case, the communication programme needs to be stronger to take advantage of the brand's power to obtain.satisfaction.

Continue reading here: Setting the Total Promotion Budget and Mix

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